मार्गदेशीविचारः २

Another definition of mārga and deśī music this time from the Saṃgītaratnākara of Śārṅgadeva Edited by Pandit S. Subrahmanya Sastri, revised by Smt. S. Sarada, Adyar Library and Research Centre, Madras, second edition 1992. Click for more...

[saṃgītalakṣaṇam]

saṃgīta comprises three things: gīta (song), vādya (instrumental music) and nṛtta (dance):

SaṃRa_1.21cd: gītaṃ vādyaṃ tathā nṛttam & trayaṃ saṃgītam ucyate

[mārgadeśīvibhāgaḥ]

It is divided twofold, into mārga, “classical” and deśī “regional”:

SaṃRa_1.22ab: mārgo deśīti tad dvedhā & tatra mārgaḥ sa ucyate

Mārga was “sought after” or “perceived” (mārgito) by Viriñca (=Brahmā) and employed by Bharata etc.:

SaṃRa_1.22cd: yo mārgito viriñcādyaiḥ & prayukto bharatādibhiḥ
SaṃRa_1.23ab: devasya purataḥ śambhor & niyatābhyudayapradaḥ

Kallinātha ad loc: mārgita iti “mārga anveṣane” ity asmād dhātoḥ karmaṇi niṣṭhāyāṃ rūpam / mārga iti tu tasmād eva dhātoh karmaṇi ghañantam /
Siṃhabhūpāla ad loc: mārgito 'nveṣito dṛṣtaḥ /

SaṃRa_1.23cd: deśe deśe janānāṃ yad & rucyā hṛdayarañjakam
SaṃRa_1.24ab: gītaṃ ca vādanaṃ nṛttaṃ & tad deśīty abhidhīyate

Kallinātha ad loc: deśaśabdena tatratyā janā lakṣyante, tair yatheccham kriyamānāyāṃ gītādikriyāyāyām ācāryakṛtā saṃjñā /

[teṣāṃ prādhānyavicāraḥ]

Vocal music is predominant as instrumental music and dance follow it:

SaṃRa_1.24cd: nṛttaṃ vādyānugataṃ proktaṃ & vādyaṃ gītānuvarti ca
SaṃRa_1.25ab: ato gītaṃ pradhānatvād & atrādāv abhidhīyate

Friedrich Rückert’s “Anrufung Śiva’s”

I chanced upon a volume of Friedrich Rückert’s (1788–1866) “virtuoso” translation of the Amaruśataka in the Berkeley University Library and could not resist spending some time reading through it. Rückert seems largely forgotten by posterity, most will probably only be familiar with a few of Rückert’s (allegedly jinxed) Kindertotenlieder set by Mahler. Click for more...

On the face of it, Rückert’s attempt to write German translations imitating the metrical patterns of Sanskrit is so fantastic that one is indeed tempted simply to repeat the unkind slur based on his name (verrückert!) and forget about the matter. But in fact, some of his verses struck me as being rather brilliant. The non-casual reader, familiar with the original Sanskrit, will probably concede that this translation of the famous second maṅgala verse of the Amaruśataka is really quite successful:

2. Anrufung Śiva’s

Der weggeschleudert and die Hand sich hangende,
Zurückgestoßen schmiegende sich ans Gewand,
Haar fassend weggedrängte, Fuß-umfangende,
Nicht mehr gesehen dann, weil die Besinnung schwand;
Der von den Mädchen Tripura’s mit Schaudermut
Umarmend abgeschüttelte, mit Tränenflut
Zurückgewiesne Werber, ungedämpfter Glut,
Verbrenn er eure Sünden, Śiva’s Rohrpfeilbrand!

सांराज्यलक्ष्मीपीठिका ३५ उपसाललक्षणम् ॥

(Sāṃrājyalakṣmīpīṭhikā 35: upasālalakṣaṇam) The short thirty-fifth chapter (paṭala) of the Sāṃrājyalakṣmīpīṭhikā describes the construction of the “secondary wall” (upasāla) and moat beyond the main wall (sāla). It seems this is intended as a subsection of the koṣṭhadurga. This type of fortress is perhaps best not called a “hall-fortress” but rather a “walled-compound-fortress”. Click for more...

atha pañcatriṃśaḥ paṭalaḥ

upasālalakṣaṇam

pārvatī—
SāṃLaPī_1.1ab: śiva sarvajña bhagavaṃl & lokarakṣaṇatatpara
SāṃLaPī_1.1cd: svarūpam upasālasya& vada me 'dya dayānidhe

śrīśivaḥ—
SāṃLaPī_1.2ab: śṛṇu devy upasālasya & vakṣyāmi tava sādaram
SāṃLaPī_1.2cd: lakṣaṇaṃ śilpaśāstrokta&mārgeṇa śubhalakṣaṇe

A space of twenty cubits (= 9 meters) beyond the sāla is left clear:
SāṃLaPī_1.3ab: pūrvoktasālāt parito & bahirdeśe samantataḥ
SāṃLaPī_1.3cd: viṃśaddhastamitāṃ bhūmiṃ & tyaktvā pūrvavad eva hi

Then another wall is built, complete with merlons and a moat. The wall measures eight cubits (3.6 meters) in height. It is furnished with many watchtowers (aṭṭāla):
SāṃLaPī_1.4ab: aṣṭahastāyataṃ śṛṅga&paṅktyā vapreṇa śobhitam
SāṃLaPī_1.4cd: upasālaṃ kalpayitvā & bahvaṭṭālasamanvitam

Beyond this secondary wall a space of three cubits (1.5 meters) is left clear. Then a rampart (parighā) is built (1 kara = breadth of 24 thumbs):
SāṃLaPī_1.5ab: tatas tasyopasālasya & paritaḥ padmalocane
SāṃLaPī_1.5cd: hastatrayamitāṃ bhūmiṃ & tyaktvātha kaṭisūtravat
SāṃLaPī_1.6ab: tadbahirviṃsatikara&nimnāṃ tāvat karāyatām
SāṃLaPī_1.6cd: parighāṃ kārayitvātha & bandhayet tattaṭadvayam
SāṃLaPī_1.7ab: śilābhir iṣṭakābhir vā & tasya dārḍhyatvasiddhaye

Gates in the cardinal points:
SāṃLaPī_1.7cd: evaṃ sālaṃ vinirmāya & dikṣu dvārāṇi kārayet
SāṃLaPī_1.8ab: kecit sālatrayaṃ kheya & trayam icchanti bhūmipāḥ
SāṃLaPī_1.8cd: atyasādhyatvasiddhyartham & etad durgasya bhāmini
SāṃLaPī_1.9ab: ity evam upasālasya & kathitaṃ mayā
SāṃLaPī_1.9cd: saṅgraheṇa tavāparṇe & kim anyac chrotum icchasi

ityākāśabhairavākhye mahāśaivatantre sāmrājyalakṣmīpīṭhikāyām upasālasvarūpanirūpaṇaṃ nāma pañcatriṃśaḥ paṭalaḥ ||

मार्गदेशीविचारः १

The evolution of the categories of mārga and deśī has interested me for some time now, so I will post some relevant sources. Incidentally, it demonstrates that the idea of a “vernacular” is actually one of considerable antiquity in Sanskrit śāstric discourse (more on this later).

Here is what remains of the first chapter of the Bṛhaddeśī of Mataṅgamuni, as reedited by Prem Lata Sharma assisted by Anil Bihari Beohar, IGNCA, New Delhi 1992. Sharma’s text is occasionally heavily, and in my opinion unnecessarily, emended (no new MS evidence was used) to remove any trace of Purāṇic or Aiśa syntax, sandhi etc. Therefore I add the TSS 92 readings on the lines immediately following. The missing opening section might have contained a formal definition of what Mataṅga understood by mārga. Click for more...

prathamo ’dhyāyaḥ

...lacuna of one folio...

deśīprakaraṇam

[mataṅga uvāca]

nānāvidheṣu deśeṣu & jantūnāṃ sukhado bhavet
tataḥ prabhṛti lokānāṃ & narendrāṇāṃ yadṛcchayā
deśe deśe pravṛtto ’sau & dhvaner deśīti saṃjñitaḥ

[granthakṛt]

mataṅgasya vacaḥ śrutvā & nārado munir abravīt

[nārada uvāca]

nanu dhvanes tu deśītvaṃ & kathaṃ jātaṃ mahāmune ?
amūrtatvāc ca tasyeti & satyaṃ me vaktum arhasi
TSS: amūrtatvāc ca teṣāṃ hi & iti me vaktum arhasi
mataṅga uvāca

yathādeśānubhūtatvād & dhvaneḥ sthānānugatvataḥ
TSS: yathānubhūtadeśāc ca & dhvaneḥ sthānānugād api
...lacuna?...
tato bindus tato nādas & tato mātrās tv anukramāt
varṇas tu mātṛkodbhūtā & mātṛkā dvividhā matāḥ
svaravyañjanarūpeṇa & jagajjyotir ihocyate
svaryate deśabhāṣāyāṃ & kādikṣāntaṃ yathāvidhi
TSS: svaryate deśabhāṣāyām & ādikṣāntaṃ yathāvidhi
tena svarāh samākhyātā & anye ṣaḍjādayaḥ svarāḥ
vyañjanatvaṃ tu sarveṣu & kādivargeṣu saṃsthitam
TSS: vyañjanatvaṃ tu sarveṣāṃ & kādivargeṇa saṃsthitam
śaktyabhivyaktimātreṇa & vyajjanaṃ śivatām gatam
padavākyasvarūpeṇa & vākyārthavahanena yat
varṇayanti jagat sarvaṃ & tena varṇāḥ prakīrtitāḥ
TSS: varṇā yatra jagat sarvaṃ & tena varṇāḥ prakīrtitāḥ
varṇapūrvakam etad dhi & padaṃ jñeyaṃ sadā budhaiḥ
padais tu nirmitaṃ vākyaṃ & kriyākārakasaṃyutam
tato vākyān mahāvākyaṃ & vedāḥ sāṅgā hy anukramāt
vyaktās te dhvanitah sarve & tato gāndharvasaṃbhavaḥ
dhvanir yoniḥ parā jñeyā & dhvaniḥ sarvasya kāraṇam
ākrāntaṃ dhvaninā sarvaṃ & jagat sthāvarajaṅgamam
dhvanis tu dvividhaḥ prokto & vyaktāvyaktavibhāgataḥ
varṇopalambhanād vyakto & deśīmukham upāgataḥ

iti deśyutpattiḥ

[deśīmārgalakṣaṇam]

abalābālagopālaiḥ & kṣitipālair nijecchayā
gīyate yānurāgeṇa & svadeśe deśir ucyate
TSS: gīyate sānurāgeṇa & svadeśe deśir ucyate
nibaddhaś cānibaddhaś ca & mārgo ’yaṃ dvividho mataḥ
TSS: nibandhaś cānibandhaś ca & mārgo ’yaṃ dvividho mataḥ
ālāpādinibaddho yaḥ & sa ca mārgaḥ prakīrtitaḥ
TSS: āplāpādinibandho yaḥ & sa ca mārgaḥ prakīrtitaḥ \var{or: \conj alpālāpanibaddho yaḥ}
evaṃprakārā deśīyaṃ & jñjātavyā gītakovidaiḥ
TSS: evaṃprakāro deśī yaḥ & jñātavyā gītakovidaiḥ
evam etan mayā proktaṃ & deśyā utpattilakṣaṇam

iti deśīlakṣaṇam

Sāhib Kaul's Śyāmāpaddhati

Continuing the post of Tuesday, April 04, 2006.

1.20ab: hṛdaye mātaraḥ kaṇṭhe & śiraḥ pīṭhopapīṭhayoḥ
1.20cd: cibuke yasya devāś ca & tasya śrīpādukāsmṛtiḥ
1.21ab: yajñāḥ kapolayugme ca & jihvāgre ca sarasvatī
1.21cd: yasya danteṣu mantrāś ca & tasya śrīpādukāsmṛtiḥ
1.22ab: skandhe ca khecarā devā & netre ca tejasāṃ trayam
1.22cd: liṅgatrayaṃ lalāṭe ca & tasya śrīpādukāsmṛtiḥ
1.23ab: iḍāpiṅgalayor antar & gaṅgā ca yamunā tathā
1.23cd: madhye sarasvatī yasya & tasya śrīpādukāsmṛtiḥ
1.24ab: śuklaraktapadadvandvaṃ & mastake yasya rājate
1.24cd: śāṃbhavaṃ ca tayor madhye & tasya śrīpādukāsmṛtiḥ
1.25ab: guruḥ śivo gurur viṣṇur & gurur brahmā guruḥ paraḥ
1.25cd: gurur agnir gurur mantro & bhānur indras tathaiva ca
1.26ab: anyat sarvaṃ saprapañcaṃ & niṣprapañcā guroḥ stutiḥ
1.26cd: tasmāc chrīpādukādhyānaṃ & sarvapāpanikṛntanam
1.27ab: pālanād duritacchedāt & kāmitārthaprapūraṇāt
1.27cd: pādukāśabdamātrārthaṃ & vimṛṣan mūrdhni pūjayet
1.28ab: iti śāstrārthasaṅketa&rahasyaṃ kulaśāsane \testim{\cf Kulārṇava 12}
1.28cd: śaktyullāsavaśād uktam & asmābhir gurvanugrahāt
1.29ab: śrīguro<ḥ> pādukāstotraṃ & prātar utthāya yaḥ paṭhet
1.30a: naśyaṃ\fol{3\recto}

Pālitta meets Hāla Sātavāhana

From the Pādaliptaprabandha of Rājaśekharasūri Śrīrājaśekharasūriviracitaś caturviṃśatiprabandhāparanāmā Prabandhakośaḥ, ed. Jina Vijaya, Singhi Jaina Series 6, Ahmedabad 1931.

§5.22. atha Śrīpādaliptācāryāḥ Pratiṣṭhānapuraṃ dakṣiṇāśāmukhabhūṣaṇaṃ Godāvarītaraṅgajjalakaṇahṛtapānthaśramabharaṃ jagmuḥ / tatra Sātavāhano rājā viduṣāṃ yodhānāṃ dānaśauṇḍānāṃ bhogināṃ ca prathamaḥ /

§5.22. Next the illustrious Pālitta went to the city of Pratiṣṭhāna, the face-ornament of the guardian [Goddess] of the Southern quarter, which dispelled the weariness of travellers with spray from the turbulent water of the Godāvarī river. There ruled the Sātavāhana king, foremost among the learned, the heroes of charity, the men of luxury.

Click for more...

tasya sabhāyāṃ vārtābhūd, yathā—Pādaliptācāryāḥ sarvavidyāvanitāvadanaratnadarpaṇāḥ samāgacchanti prātaḥ / tataḥ sarvaiḥ paṇḍitaiḥ sambhūya styānaghṛtabhṛtaṃ kaccolakam arpayitvā nijaḥ puruṣa eka ācāryāṇāṃ sammukhaḥ preṣitaḥ / ācāryair ghṛtamadhye sūcy ekā kṣiptā; tathaiva ca pratipreṣitaṃ tat /

There was a rumour in his court, that the teacher Pālitta, a jewelled hand-mirror for the muses of all of the sciences, will arrive in the morning. Then all of the scholars conferred and sent one from their midst to meet the teacher with a kaccolaka filled with congealed ghee. The teacher stuck a single needle into the ghee and sent it back.

rājñā sa vṛttānto jñātaḥ / paṇḍitāḥ pṛṣṭāḥ—ghṛtapūrṇakaccolakapreṣaṇena vaḥ ko bhāvaḥ ?

The king learnt of this event. He asked the scholars: “In sending the kaccolaka full of ghee, what was your intention?’’

tair uktam evam etan nagaraṃ viduṣāṃ pūrṇaṃ āste, yathā ghṛtasya vartulakam; tasmād vimṛśya preṣṭavyam iti bhāvas naḥ /

They replied: “Our intention was this: ‘This city is this full of wise men, just like this ball of ghee, so consider this and move on.’ ’’

rājñā nigaditam—tarhy ācāryaceṣṭāpi bhavadbhir jñāyatām /—yathā nirantare 'pi ghṛte nijatīkṣṇatayā sūcī praviṣṭā, tathāham api vidvannibiḍe nagare pravekṣyāmi—iti dadhvanuḥ /

The king said: “Then you also understand the teacher’s gesture.’’ They answered: “Just as a needle may enter even into dense ghee through its sharpness, so I may enter into this city crowded with scholars.’’

paṇḍitāḥ sarve rājendro 'pi saṃmukhaṃ gatāḥ / surasarillaharihariṇyā vāṇyā tuṣṭuvuḥ / nagaramānito guruḥ / NirvāṇakalikāPraśnaprakāśādiśāstrāṇi sandadarbha / ekāṃ ca Taraṅgalolāṃ nāma campūṃ rājño 'gre navāṃ nirmāya sadasi vyācakhye prabhuḥ / tuṣṭo rājā—bhavaty ayaṃ kavīndraḥ /

All the scholars and even the king went out to greet the teacher. They praised him with words as enthralling as ripplets on the celestial river Ganges. The guru was fêted by the city. He composed treatises such as the “Bud of Enlightenment” and the “Illumination of the Questions” etc. He also composed a Campū-style poem called the “The Play of the Wave” and read it out before the king in the assembly. The king was delighted: “He is a prince among poets!”

Dīrghāgama fol. 291

वनादिदुर्गाणां लक्षणम्

Here is the chapter giving the Sāṃrājyalakṣmīpīthikā’s definitions of the other seven types of durgāṇi. I have often wondered about the high concentration and great variety of thorny plants around Senji. Could these be more than the accidental result of the eating habits of the actually quite sparse goat population? Click for more...

atha trayastriṃśaḥ paṭalaḥ
vanadurgasvarūpakathanam

śrīśivaḥ–
2. vanadurgalakṣaṇaṃ
thorny thickets, jungles, hidden paths,
ferocious animals

SāṃLaPī_33.1ab: athocyate mayā devi & vanadurgasya lakṣaṇam
SāṃLaPī_33.1cd: yad etat sarvadurgāṇām & adhikaṃ varavarṇini
SāṃLaPī_33.2ab: nānākaṇṭakavṛkṣaugha&latāgulmādisaṅkule
SāṃLaPī_33.2cd: gūḍhamārge duṣpraveśe & sūryāṃśūnām api priye
SāṃLaPī_33.3ab: siṃhavyāghravarāhādi&duṣṭajantuniṣevite
SāṃLaPī_33.3cd: pulindapulkasamleccha&śabarādibhayaṅkare
SāṃLaPī_33.4ab: agādhajalasambādha&taṭākāndhusamanvite andhu = well
SāṃLaPī_33.4cd: prakalpitaṃ puraṃ yad vai & vanadurgaṃ tad ucyate

3. gahvaradurgalakṣaṇaṃ
in a chasm, surrounded by piles of scree

SāṃLaPī_33.5ab: vistīrṇe viṣame śvabhre & girigahvarasannibhe
SāṃLaPī_33.5cd: śiloccayair atikṣudraiḥ & paritaḥ pariveṣṭite
SāṃLaPī_33.6ab: antikasthair api janair & avijñātāyatānvite
SāṃLaPī_33.6cd: tṛṇakāṣṭhajalair yuktaṃ & puraṃ yad upakalpitam
SāṃLaPī_33.7ab: tat tu gahvaradurgaṃ syād & asādhyam amarair api

4. jaladurgalakṣaṇaṃ
built as an island

SāṃLaPī_33.7cd: nadīnāṃ devakhātānām & aśoṣyāṇāṃ jalāntare devakhātānām = natural reservoir
SāṃLaPī_33.8ab: mahatāṃ vā taṭākānām & agādhajalamadhyame
SāṃLaPī_33.8cd: dvīpīkṛtaṃ puraṃ yat taj & jaladurgam itīritam

5. paṅkadurgalakṣaṇaṃ
geysers, quicksand

SāṃLaPī_33.9ab: mahītalaviniryadbhir & duṣpraveśe jaloṣmabhiḥ
SāṃLaPī_33.9cd: pracchanaghanasusnigdha&mṛdukardamasaṃvṛte
SāṃLaPī_33.10ab: yasmin kasmin mahībhāge & madhyame 'tyunnatasthale
SāṃLaPī_33.10cd: kalpitaṃ nagaraṃ yat tat & paṅkadurgam udāhṛtam

6. miśradurgalakṣaṇaṃ
combinaton of all

SāṃLaPī_33.11ab: giriṇā vipinenāpi & saṃyutaṃ jalasaṃvṛtam
SāṃLaPī_33.11cd: paritaḥ paṅkabhūmyā ca & sahitaṃ yat puraṃ śive
SāṃLaPī_33.12ab: tan miśranāmakaṃ durgaṃ & asādhyaṃ devadānavaiḥ

7. nṛdurgalakṣaṇaṃ
a protective circle of ever-alert, well-armed warriors

SāṃLaPī_33.12cd: khaḍgatomarakuntāsi&bāṇakārmukadhāribhiḥ
SāṃLaPī_33.13ab: bhaṭair asaṅkhyair virādhi&vīrair aniśam uddhataiḥ
SāṃLaPī_33.13cd: parito valayākāra&racitāgāravartibhiḥ
SāṃLaPī_33.14ab: rakṣitaṃ yat puravaraṃ & tan nṛdurgam itīritam

8. koṣṭhadurgalakṣaṇaṃ
a large hall with some warriors

SāṃLaPī_33.14cd: sālena mahatā yuktaṃ & vīraiḥ katipayair yutam
SāṃLaPī_33.15ab: yat puraṃ tat pṛthuśroṇi & koṣṭhadurgam itīritam
SāṃLaPī_33.15cd: ity evaṃ vanadurgādi & durgāṇām lakṣaṇaṃ mayā
SāṃLaPī_33.16ab: kathitaṃ tava deveśi & kim anyac chrotum icchasi

ityākāśabhairavākhye mahāśaivatantre sāmrājyalakṣmīpīṭhikāyām vanadurgādyaṣṭakasvarūpanirūpaṇaṃ nāma trayastriṃśaḥ paṭalaḥ ||

नागेश्वरस्वामिने नमः

The small but perfect Nāgeśvara (or Nāgasvāmī) temple is for the visiting Sanskritist easily the most thrilling sacred site to see in Kumbakonam, a city noted for the superabundance of its temples. Here “small” refers to the original structure supposedly completed early in the reign of Parāntaka Coḷa (reg, 907–940 AD). After passing through what seem like never-ending bombastic (and dilapidated) enclosures of more recent design the visiting Sanskritist (sahṛdaya) cannot help but be speechless when faced with the remains of the original Cola masterpiece.


Sure, the Bṛhadīśvara temple may be imposing, but the aesthetically aware Sanskritist must on no account fail to receive darśanam of Nāgeśvara and his consort Bṛhannāyakī as well. The sacred well located here is called Nāgatīrtham, Ādiśeṣa is believed to have done penance here. Another attraction is the elegant and early Coḷa inscription covering almost the whole of the early temple.


As if this were not enough, the best time to visit this temple are three days in the month of Caitra (11th, 12, and 13th lunar days, though it is the only time of the year it ever approaches being crowded). These are the only days of the year when the sun’s rays fall through an ingeniously fashioned opening to bathe the central liṅgam in light.


The images posted are Ardhanārīśvara in the west, the wife of the donor (?) dānapati, Brahmā in the south, and probably the dānapati and his wife. Use your imagination to eliminate some of the more hideous modern accretions to the Cola structure to perceive the subtle original design.

दुर्गलक्षणम् (fort classifications)

Some more background to the unusual eightfold classification of durgāṇi (forts) given in the (well-titled) Sāṃrājyalakṣmīpīṭhikā of the Ākāśabhairavakalpa. I cannot date the text yet though with a bit more work it should be possible with quite some precision. The first 30 of its 139 chapters are concerned with the Tantric cult of the Goddess embodying the welfare of the polity: Sāṃrājyalakṣmī.

Chapters 31–38 I will discuss in the next few posts, they are concerned with fortresses, and I had ample opportunity to make use of them while exploring Senji. I quote from the editor’s introduction:

“We have in the Saraswati Mahal the personal copies of this work inscribed with the names of some of the Mahratta kings of Tanjore, and it is clear that this work has been regularly studied and practised by every prince and heir-apparent in our country.”

I tried on several occasions to see these MSS in the Sarasvatī Mahal Library in Tanjore but was denied every single time (the reasons varied). I will of course try again on my next visit. It should be self-evident that this is a text of great importance to all serious historians of South India (that is, those who still bother with that “antiquarian pursuit” of trying to make sense of primary sources…). Click below for more...

That there should be eight basic types of durga appears to be somewhat unusual. A common list gives six types:

[1.] dhanvadurga (desert-fort),
[2.] mahīdurga (earth-fort),
[3.] abdurga (water-fort),
[4.] vārkṣadurga or vanadurga (tree-fort),
[5.] nṛdurga (man-fort),
[6.] giridurga (mountain-fort).

Many thanks to Peter Bisschop for sending me these references for the sixfold classification:

Manusmṛti 7.70–71:
dhanvadurgaṃ mahīdurgam abdurgaṃ vārkṣam eva vā |
nṛdurgaṃ giridurgaṃ vā samāśritya vaset puram ||
sarveṇa tu prayatnena giridurgaṃ samāśrayet |
eṣāṃ hi bāhuguṇyena giridurgaṃ viśiṣyate ||

Mahābhārata: 12.87.4–5:
ṣaḍvidhaṃ durgam āsthāya purāṇy atha niveśayet
sarvasaṃpatpradhānaṃ yad bāhulyaṃ vāpi saṃbhavet
dhanvadurgaṃ mahīdurgaṃ giridurgaṃ tathaiva ca
manuṣyadurgam abdurgaṃ vanadurgaṃ ca tāni ṣaṭ

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa 2.26.06–7:
tatra durgaṃ nṛpaḥ kuryāt ṣaṇṇām ekatamaṃ budhaḥ/
dhanvadurgaṃ mahīdurgaṃ naradurgaṃ tathā^eva ca//
vārkṣaṃ caivāṃbudurgaṃ ca giridurgaṃ ca bhārgava/
sarveṣāṃ eva durgāṇāṃ giridurgaṃ praśasyate//

Ibid 3.323.15cd–16
tatra durgāṇi kurvīta svadurgaṃ ca viśeṣavat//
dhanvadurgaṃ mahīdurgaṃ giridurgaṃ tathaiva ca/
abdurgaṃ vṛkṣadurgaṃ ca naradurgaṃ tathaiva ca//

A further text giving this six-fold classification is Agnipurāṇā 2.221B.1–5.

Compared with this ancient, very theoretical, list the account of fortresses given in the Sāṃrājyalakṣmīpīṭhikā is much more detailed. Even at first reading it gives the impression that it is more practical, and after attempting to apply some of it to Senji this seems justified.

The Sāṃrājyalakṣmīpīṭhikā is, however, not the only text to expand this inherited classification scheme. Nine types of durga (fort) are discussed in the Abhilaṣitārthacintāmaṇi or Mānasollāsa of the Cālukya emperor Someśvaradeva (Someśvara III), composed in the Śaka year 1051 = 1129 AD. We do not really have a reliable text of this monumental work, both of the published editions can differ substantially, so reading them in concert is a must. Someśvaradeva classifies fortresses as follows:

[1.] jaladurga (water-fort),
[2.] giridurga (mountain-fort),
[3.] pāṣāṇadurga (stone-fort),
[4.] iṣṭikādurga (brick-fort),
[5.] mṛttikādurga (earthen-fort),
[6.] vanadurga (forest-fort),
[7.] marudurga (desert -fort),
[8.] dārudurga (wooden-fort),
[9.] naradurga (man-fort).

It is easily evident hat some of these might simply be duplicates based on double interpretations of the ancient terms. Thus the vārkṣadurga could mean “fort made of trees” (= Someśvara’s dārudurga) or “fort built in a thorny thicket” (= Someśvara’s vanadurga).

1. Mānasollāsa, ed. R. Shama Sastry
Oriental Library Publications, Sanskrit Series No. 69
Mysore 1926

2. GOS = Gaekwad Oriental Series 28, Mānasollāsa Vol. 1, ed.
Gajanan K. Shrigondekar, Baroda 1925. Continued in GOS 84 138

From the Mānasollāsa, Prakaraṇa 1, Durgādhyāya 5, navavidhadurgalakṣaṇam:

jaladurgaṃ giridurgaṃ & durgaṃ pāṣāṇanirmitam
iṣṭikābhiḥ kṛtaṃ durgaṃ & durgaṃ syān mṛttikāmayam
vanadurgaṃ marudurgaṃ & durgaṃ dāruvinirmitam
naradurgaṃ ca navamaṃ & teṣāṃ vakṣyāmi lakṣaṇam
agādhenātha toyena & veṣṭitaṃ jalajaṃ bhavet
durārohaṃ ca śailāgram & udakena samanvitam
giridurgaṃ samākhyātaṃ & nayaśāstraviśāradaiḥ
pāṣāṇaghaṭitaṃ durgam & aśmadurgam udiritam
iṣṭikābhiḥ kṛtaṃ samyak & sudhāliptaṃ samujjvalam
iṣṭikādurgam ākhyātaṃ & parikhāveṣṭitaṃ mahat
mṛdā viracitaṃ yat tu & tad durgaṃ mṛttikāmayam
vanadurgaṃ samākhyātaṃ & ghanaṃ kaṇṭakaśākhibhiḥ
antaḥsthaiḥ sañcitaṃ toyaṃ & bahiḥsthānāṃ ca durlabham
marudurgaṃ samākhyātaṃ & marudeśasamaṃ yataḥ
dārubhir veṇubhiḥ kḷptaṃ & durgaṃ dārumayaṃ smṛtam
śastrahastair mahāyodhair & nirmitaṃ naradurgakam
eteṣām uttamaṃ durgaṃ & girijaṃ jalajaṃ tathā
madhyamanītarāṇy āhuḥ & kaniṣṭhaṃ syāc ca dārujam

iti navavidhadurgalakṣaṇam

सांराज्यलक्ष्मीपीठिका (Sāṃrājyalakṣmīpīṭhikā)

The first two chapters of the Sāṃrājayalakṣmīpīṭhikā bearing on fortresses are concerned with definition and classification. The to me more interesting realia follow later. The fortress (durga) section begins with chapter 31 discussing their classification into eight basic types and then subdividing the first one, the giridurga (mountain fortress) into a further eight subtypes. Chapter 32 describes the types to be avoided.

Sāṃrājayalakṣmīpīṭhikā ed. K. Vasudeva Sastri & K.S. Subhrahmanya Sastri Saraswathi Mahal Library, Thanjavur 1990
Click below to see the text...


athaikatriṃśaḥ paṭalaḥ

aṣṭavidhadurgasvarūpakathanam

SāṃLaPī_31.1ab: devadeva virūpākṣa \var{devadeva\lem \em; deva deva \ed} & sarvajña śiva śaṅkara
SāṃLaPī_31.1cd: nānāvidhānāṃ mantrāṇāṃ & japabhedā mayā śrutāḥ
SāṃLaPī_31.2ab: idānīṃ śrotum icchāmi & durgānāṃ lakṣaṇaṃ param
SāṃLaPī_31.2cd: durgāṇi kati bhūpānāṃ & rājyarakṣākarāni vai
SāṃLaPī_31.3ab: kiṃrūpāṇi kimākhyāni & tāni me kathaya prabho

śrīśivaḥ—

SāṃLaPī_31.3cd: sādhu pṛṣṭaṃ tvayā devi & lokānugrahakāṃkṣayā
SāṃLaPī_31.4ab: etat tava pravakṣyāmi & sāvadhānamanāḥ śṛṇu
SāṃLaPī_31.4cd: nṛpāṇāṃ sārvabhaumānāṃ & rāṣṭreśānāṃ mahībhujām
SāṃLaPī_31.5ab: anyeṣāṃ maṇḍaleśānāṃ & durgāṇy eva balaṃ mahat
SāṃLaPī_31.5cd: yeṣāṃ purāṇi suśroṇi & vidurgāṇi mahībhujām
SāṃLaPī_31.6ab: tāṃl līlayā hi ripavo & ghnanti nāsty atra saṃśayaḥ
SāṃLaPī_31.6cd: tasmād durgāṇi bhūpālair & nirmātavyāni yatnataḥ
SāṃLaPī_31.7ab: teṣāṃ nāmāni vakṣyāmi & svarūpam api te 'naghe
SāṃLaPī_31.7cd: prathamaṃ giridurgaṃ syād & vanadurgaṃ dvitīyakam
SāṃLaPī_31.8ab: tṛtīyaṃ gahvarāntasthaṃ & jaladurgaṃ caturthakam
SāṃLaPī_31.8cd: pañcamaṃ kardamāvītaṃ & ṣaṣṭhaṃ syān miśranāmakam
SāṃLaPī_31.9ab: saptamaṃ naradurgaṃ syāt & koṣṭadurgaṃ tathāṣṭamam
SāṃLaPī_31.9cd: kasmiṃś cid rucire deśe & madhye vāpy agrataḥ sthite
SāṃLaPī_31.10ab: durārūḍhe 'tivistīrṇe & bhṛgupātasamanvite
SāṃLaPī_31.10cd: uparyadhaś ca sālena & mahatā pariveṣṭite
SāṃLaPī_31.11ab: aśoṣyajaladurgāḍhye & garīyasi girau priye
SāṃLaPī_31.11cd: vinirmitaṃ puraṃ yat tad & giridurgam itīritam
SāṃLaPī_31.12ab: tat punaś cāṣṭadhā proktaṃ & devi bhadrādibhedataḥ
SāṃLaPī_31.12cd: bhadraṃ caivātibhadraṃ ca & candraṃ caivārdhacandrakam
SāṃLaPī_31.13ab: nābhaṃ caiva sunābhaṃ ca & ruciraṃ vardhamānakam
SāṃLaPī_31.13cd: yad vartulaṃ atisnigdham & unnataṃ sarvataḥ samam
SāṃLaPī_31.14ab: bahuvāridarīyuktam & ekopalam agātmaje
SāṃLaPī_31.14cd: tad bhadraṃ nāma durgaṃ syāt & tatkartā bhadram āsanam
SāṃLaPī_31.15ab: samāruhya gajair bhadra & nāmakair anvitaḥ sadā
SāṃLaPī_31.15cd: jitvā sapatnasaṃdohaṃ & mahīṃ pālayati dhruvam
SāṃLaPī_31.16ab: yad durgam caturaśraṃ syād & āmulāgram agātmaje
SāṃLaPī_31.16cd: atyunnataṃ suvistīrṇaṃ & jalagahvarasaṃyutam
SāṃLaPī_31.17ab: tad etad atibhadraṃ syāt & tadīśo nṛpapuṅgavaḥ
SāṃLaPī_31.17cd: sadāṣṭaiśvaryasampannaḥ & pālayed akhilaṃ jagat
SāṃLaPī_31.18ab: mūlam ārabhya daṇḍābham & ante śirasi candravat
SāṃLaPī_31.18cd: viśālaṃ bahutoyāḍhyam & agamyam amarair api
SāṃLaPī_31.19ab: yad etac candradurgaṃ syāt & tatkartā pṛthivīpatiḥ
SāṃLaPī_31.19cd: candravat sarvadā śānta & manāḥ pālayati prajāḥ
SāṃLaPī_31.20ab: ardhacandrasamākāram & āmūlāgram agātmaje
SāṃLaPī_31.20cd: nātyunnataṃ nātihrasvaṃ & jalagahvaraśobhitam
SāṃLaPī_31.21ab: tad etac candradurgaṃ syāt & tatkartā pṛthivīpatiḥ
SāṃLaPī_31.21cd: arīn vijitya samare & bhuvaṃ rakṣati līlayā
SāṃLaPī_31.22ab: mūle kṛśaṃ śirasy agre & viśālaṃ kramavṛddhitaḥ
SāṃLaPī_31.22cd: yat kañjakarṇikākāraṃ & tad durgaṃ nābham ucyate
SāṃLaPī_31.23ab: taddurgasyādhipo rājā & padmanābha ivāniśam
SāṃLaPī_31.23cd: vijitya samare śatrūn & dīrghāyuḥ syān na saṃśayaḥ
SāṃLaPī_31.24ab: mūle sthūlaṃ kṛśaṃ tv agre & kramahānyā himādrije
SāṃLaPī_31.24cd: yat tat sunābham ity uktaṃ & tadīśaḥ suciraṃ mahīm
SāṃLaPī_31.25ab: pālayel līlayā devi & durgasyāsya prabhāvataḥ
SāṃLaPī_31.25cd: mahīm ārabhya sopāna & paṅktivat kramavṛddhitaḥ
SāṃLaPī_31.26ab: yad unnatam sutoyāḍhyaṃ & durgaṃ tad ruciraṃ bhavet
SāṃLaPī_31.26cd: tannāyako bhaved rājñāṃ & sarveṣām api nāyakaḥ
SāṃLaPī_31.27ab: yad durgaṃ maddalākāraṃ & vardhamānaṃ tad ucyate
SāṃLaPī_31.27cd: tadīśvaro vrajed ṛddhiṃ & dhanadhānyaiḥ pade pade
SāṃLaPī_31.28ab: evam aṣṭavidhasyoktaṃ & giridurgasya lakṣaṇam
SāṃLaPī_31.28cd: saṃkṣepāt tava suśroṇi & kim anyac chrotum icchasi

ityākāśabhairavākhye mahāśaivatantre sāmrājyalakṣmīpīṭhikāyām aṣṭavidhadurgasvarūpakathanaṃ nāma ekatriṃśaḥ paṭalaḥ ||

atha dvātriṃśaḥ paṭalaḥ

varjanīyagiridurgāṣṭakasvarūpakathanam

SāṃLaPī_32.1ab: pārvatī—śiva śaṅkara sarvajña & lokanātha dayānidhe
SāṃLaPī_32.1cd: durgāṇi varjanīyāni & yāni tāni vadādya me
SāṃLaPī_32.2ab: śrīśivaḥ—atha durgāṇi vakṣyante & varjanīyāni rājabhiḥ
SāṃLaPī_32.2cd: tānīha śṛṇu deveśi & sāvadhānena cetasā
SāṃLaPī_32.3ab: sūcimukhaṃ naranibhaṃ & śūrpābhaṃ śakaṭākṛti
SāṃLaPī_32.3cd: madhyakhaṇḍaṃ cātivakraṃ & daṇḍākāraṃ tathaiva ca
SāṃLaPī_32.4ab: halākāraṃ nṛpatir & nivāsāya vivarjayet
SāṃLaPī_32.4cd: sūcīmukhena durgeṇa & saṃgrāme vimukho bhavet
SāṃLaPī_32.5ab: narākāreṇa durgeṇa & dhanalobhaparo bhavet
SāṃLaPī_32.5cd: śūrpākāreṇa durgeṇa & śauryahīnas tu jāyate
SāṃLaPī_32.6ab: śakaṭābhena durgeṇa & pramādo jāyate sadā
SāṃLaPī_32.6cd: madhyakhaṇḍena durgeṇa & sadā vyādhiyuto bhavet
SāṃLaPī_32.7ab: ativakreṇa durgeṇa & sadaiva maraṇaṃ bhavet
SāṃLaPī_32.7cd: daṇḍākāreṇa durgeṇa & nṛpo bhavati ninditaḥ
SāṃLaPī_32.8ab: halākāreṇa durgeṇa & dhanahīnaḥ sadā bhavet
SāṃLaPī_32.8cd: ity evaṃ varjanīyasya & giridurgāṣṭakasya ca
SāṃLaPī_32.9ab: svarūpaṃ ca phalaṃ prāpya & kathitaṃ te tadīśvaraḥ

ityākāśabhairavākhye mahāśaivatantre sāmrājyalakṣmīpīṭhikāyām varjanīygiridurgāṣṭakasvarūpanirūpaṇaṃ nāma dvātriṃśaḥ paṭalaḥ ||

Gingi, Gingee, Senji (Part 2)

Here are some more pictures of Senji, hopefully clarifying some of the route described in the previous post. I should have added that it is inadvisable to explore the site alone, particularly the remoter areas. I saw few snakes or scorpions, they come out only after sundown. The red millipedes and the fast running spiders found in the cavernous spaces beneath jumbled boulders proved harmless, but the large black and yellow centipedes can give a painful sting, so be careful what cracks you put your hands in while climbing. After sundown I once encountered a small bear south of Kuraṅgudurga. The monkeys were more dangerous. Photos below...

The “Devil’s Gate”, complete with goat. The righthand picture does not join up, I think it is from near Kuraṅgudurga.


Allikulam in the late afternoon, looking towards Kusumalai. The water levels can vary dramatically throughout the year, but I never saw it without water.


The granite plateau or saddle I mentioned. Rājagiri is visible in the distance. To the right of the small body of visible water lies Allikulam. This end of Candrāyaṇadurga is only very lightly fortified, considering the difficulty of access this makes perfect sense.


A favourite rock to rest beneath on the saddle.


Halfway up Kusumalai, Looking back down towards Allikulam with Rājagiri in the distance.



Note the sharply angled wall (pre-firearm design) of the 6th enclosure of Rājagiri. The structure with the rounded roof is the granary.